Document Type : Scientific-Research
Authors
1 Associate Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2 PhD in Archaeology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Qanat is one of the most important human-developed technologies that played a significant role in the growth and development of the communities residing in Iran. Most researchers believe that the first qanats were built in the first half of the first millennium BC. Iran is considered the most important candidate for the emergence, and spread of this valuable technology due to the large number of qanats the advanced construction technology and the culture associated with them. Nevertheless, independent archaeological research on the origins of the earliest qanats in Iran is very limited, and the Qazvin Plain is no exception to this. From the written records and the available archaeological evidence, it can be deduced that this technology was utilized by the communities residing in the Qazvin Plain during the Achaemenid period. Although there is no direct evidence of pre-Achaemenid qanats in the region, factors such as a climatic drought event, population growth, intensified political competition, the expansion of livestock farming (particularly horse breeding), the development of orchards, and the construction of paradises (royal gardens) suggest that the necessary motivations and incentives for the construction of this technology were present in the second half of the 7th century BC in the region.
Keywords
Main Subjects
Akbaryan, M., Ayda, A., Nuri, A., (2021), “Hydraulic Landscape, The Role of Water System in Shaping the Landscape of Qazvin Traditional Orchards”, Manzar, Volume 13, Issue 55, pp. 30-41 (In Persian).
Albenda, P., (1974), “Grapevines in Ashurbanipal’s Garden” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 215, pp. 5-17.
Albenda, P., (2018), " Neo-Assyrian Views of Foreign Cities: A Brief Survey ", Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, Editor: Elizabeth Simpson, Vol.94, pp 279-303.
Al-e Ahmad, J., (1991), Tāt Nešīnhā-ye Bolūk-e Zahra, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr Publishers (In Persian).
Al-Tikriti, W. Y., (2002), “The south-east Arabian origin of the falaj system”, Proceedings ofrhe Seminarfor Arabian Studies 32, pp. 117-138.
Amrhein, A. (2015), “Neo-Assyrian gardens: a spectrum of artificiality, sacrality and accessibility. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 35/2, pp. 91-114.
Asghari Sarsakanroud, Ș., Balvasi, M., Zinalī, B., Șāḩebī Vāyeqān, S., (2014), “Zoning capabilities of Qazvin province for grape cultivation”, Journal of Geography and Environmental Studies، Vol 2، Issue 8, pp. 7-18 (In Persian).
Azizi Karanagī, Ḩ., Naseri, R., (2013), “Stratigeraphic excavation at south part of Tepe Sagzabad, Qazvin plain”, Payāme Bāstānšenāsī, Issue 18 Vol. 9, pp 77-96 (In Persian).
Babazadeh, S., Dehpahlavan, M., Malekzadeh, M., (2024), “New Evidence of Increasing Social Complexities in the Qazvin Plain at the beginning of the first Millennium B.C.”, Pažūhesh-hā-ye Bāstānšenāsī Iran, 14(40), 59-92. (In Persian).
Belli, O., (1999), “Dams, Reservoirs and Irrigation Channels of the Van Plain in the Period of the Urartian Kingdom”, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 49, Anatolian Iron Ages 4. Proceedings of the Fourth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Mersin, 19-23 May 1997 (1999), pp. 11-26.
Boucharlat, R., (2017), “Qanat and Falaj: Polycentric and Multi-Period Innovations Iran and the United Arab Emirates as Case Studies”, Underground Aqueducts Handbook, Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 279-301.
Briant, P., ( 2001), Polybe X. 28 et les qanāts: le témoignage et ses limites. In Irrigation et drainage dans l’Antiquité, qanāts et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Egypte et en Grèce, ed. P. Briant (Persika 2), pp. 15–40. Paris, France: Thotm.
Burney, Ch., (1972), “Urartian Irrigation Works”, Anatolian Studies,Vol. 22, Special Number in Honour of the Seventieth Birthday of Professor Seton Lloyd (1972), pp. 179-186.
Bouzari, S, (1994), “Investigating the water resources of Qazvin plain”, Geographical Research, Issue 13, pp. 131- 148 (In Persian).
Bouzari, S, (1994), “Investigating the water resources of Qazvin plain”, Geographical Research, Issue 13, pp. 131- 148. (In Persian)
Charbonnier, J., (2015), “Groundwater management in Southeast Arabia from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age: a critical reassessment”, Water History, vol. 7, issue 1, pp. 39-71.
Charbonnier, J., Hopper, K., (2018), “The Qanat: a multidisciplinary and diachronic approach to the study of groundwater catchment systems in archaeology Introduction of the Special Issue ‘‘The qanat: Archaeology and Environment’’”, Water Hist 10, pp.3–11.
Chardin, J., (1993), Journal du voyage du Chevalier Chardin en persea aux Indes Orientals, Translated in Persian by Eqbāl Yaḡmāī, Tehrān, Tūs Book Publisher (In Persian).
Çifci, A., Alan M. G., (2013), “Urartian Irrigation Systems: A Critical Review.”, Ancient Near Eastern Studies 50, pp.191–214.
Davoodi, H., Moqimi, N., Shirazi, Z., (2021), “Cultural and Economic Transformations of the First Half of the Fifth Millennium B.C. in the Qazvin Plain, Based on the Results of Salvage Excavations at Kholah Kouh of Takestan”, Volume 10, Issue 27, pp. 29-54 (In Persian).
Dehpahlavan, M., (2016)," Preliminary report of educational and research excavation of the Department of Archeology, University of Tehran; Qara Tepe of Sagzābād", Unpublished (In persian).
Dehpahlavan, M., (2018), Archaeological Survey and documenting of Qanats in the Qazvin Plain (Buein Zahra County) (First Phase), Qazvin Province Cultural Heritage, Crafts and Tourism Organization, Unpublished (In Persian).
Dehpahlavan, M., (2020), Archaeological Survey and documenting of Qanats in the Qazvin Plain (Buein Zahra County) (Second Phase), Qazvin Province Cultural Heritage, Crafts and Tourism Organization, Unpublished (In Persian).
Dehpahlavan, M., (2022), " Preliminary report of educational and research excavation of the Department of Archeology, University of Tehran; Qara Tepe of Sāgzabād ", Unpublished. (In Persian)
Earle, T., (1997), how chiefs come to power: The political economy in prehistory, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
English, P., (2016), “The origin and spread of qanats in the old world”, Translated in Persian by Shahram Ardeshir, Saleh Pargari, Hossein Hatami nezhad, History Reserch، Vol 11، Issue 42, pp.69-94.
Fages, A., Hanghøj, K., Khan, N., Gaunitz, C., Seguin-Orlando, A., Leonardi, M., McCrory Constantz, C., Gamba, C., Al-Rasheid, K. A. S., Albizuri, S., Alfarhan, A. H., Allentoft, M., Alquraishi, S., Anthony, D., Baimukhanov, N., Barrett, J. H., Bayarsaikhan, J., Benecke, N., Bernáldez-Sánchez, E., Berrocal-Rangel, L., Biglari, F., Boessenkool, S., Boldgiv, B., Brem, G., Brown, D., (2019), " Tracking five millennia of horse management with extensive ancient genome time series.", Cell 177, 1419-1435.
Fattahi, M., (2015), “OSL dating of the Miam Qanat (KĀRIZ) system in NE Iran”, Journal of Archaeological Science 59, pp. 54–63.
Fazeli Nashli, H., Aliyari, A., (2006), “The chronology of Tepe Zaḡeh”, In: The Archaeology of Qazvin. From the Sixth to the First Millennium BC. Tehran: University of Tehran Press (In Persian).
Fouache, E., Francfort, H. P., Bendezu-Sarmiento, J., Vahdati, J. J., Lhuillier, J., (2010), “The Horst of Sabzevar and regional water resources from the Bronze Age to the present day (Northeastern Iran) “, Geodinamica Acta 23/5, PP. 287-294.
Fouache, É., Francfort, H.-P., Bendezu-Sarmiento, J., Vahdati, A. A. and Lhuillier, J. 2010. ‘The Horst of Sabzevar and regional water resources from the Bronze Age to the present day’ A review of Khorasan archeology, The third international conference of young archaeologists, Edited by Shahram Zare, pp 149-157 (In Persian).
Frame, G., (2020), The Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria (721–705 BC), The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period, Vol.2, EISENBRAUNS University Park, Pennsylvania.
Frame, G., (2021), The royal inscriptions of Sargon II, king of Assyria (721–705 BC), EISENBRAUNS, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Fuchs, A., (2023), "The Medes and the Kingdom of Mannea”, The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume 4: The Age of Assyria, Editors: Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and D. T. Potts, pp 674-768.
Fuller, D. Q., Stevens, Ch. j., (2019), “Between domestication and civilization: the role of agriculture and arboriculture in the emergence of the first urban societies”, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 28, pp. 263–282.
Garbrecht, G., (1980), “The Water Supply System at Tuspa (Urartu)”, World Archaeology 11/3, pp. 306–312.
Goblot, H., (1992), Les qanats: une technique dacquisition de leau, Translated in Persian by Abolhasane Sarvqad moqadam, Mohammad Hosseine Papoli Yazdī, Āstāne Qodse Rażavī (In Persian).
Gökce, B., Işık, K., (2014), “Horses and Horse-Breeding in Urartian Civilization”, Ancient West & East 13, pp.1-28.
Grayson, A. K., Novotny, J., (2012), The royal inscriptions of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (704–681 BC), Part1, Winona Lake, Indiana EISENBRAUNS.
Hammer, E., (2022), “Role and Characteristics of Irrigation in the”, Irrigation in Early States: New Directions. Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, pp. 267-303.
Harris, M. V., (1989), “Glimpses of an Iron Age Landscape, Plants at Hasanlu” Expedition, Vol. 31, No. 2-3, pp.12-23.
Hayden, B., (1998), " Practical and Prestige Technologies: The Evolution of Material Systems", Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 5, pp 1-55.
Hedayati Dezfoli, A., Kakavand, R., (2012), “Climatic Zoning of Qazvin Province”, Journal of Meteorological Organization.Vol. 36, 77-76, pp 59-66 (In Persian).
Ībn Ḥawqal, (1986), (Sūrat ul-Ard) Historical geographie of Iran in 4th. Centry A.H., Translated in Persian by Jafar Shear, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr Publishers (In Persian).
Īṣtaḵrī, Abū Īshāq Ebrāhīm, (1961), Masālīk va Mamālīk, Edited by Iraj Afshar, Tehran, B.T.N.K. (In Persian).
Janick, J., (2005), “The origin of fruits, fruit growing, and fruit breeding”, Plant Breeding Rev25, pp.255-320.
ǰayhānī, A., (1389), Aškal ul – ʻĀlam, Translated in Persian by Abdo – Salame Kateb, Behnašr, Āstān Quds Razavi (In Persian).
Johnson, A., Earle, T. (2000), The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Khan Fini, N., (2023), Archaeobotanical studies in Qareh tape Sagzabad in Iron age II and III, Qazvin plain, Master’s thesis in the field of Archaeology-Pre historic tendency, University of Kashan (In Persian).
Kavosh, H. A., Shirazi, Z., Naseri, R., (2020), “The Archaeobotanical Studies of Tepe Taleb Khan, Sistan, Southeast of Iran (2500-2300 BCE)”, Journal of Research on Archaeometry, Vol 6 - Issue 1, pp 137-154 (In Persian).
Kleiss, W., (2010), Bastam, Excavations in Urartian Fortifications 1977-1978, Translated in Persian by Faramarze Najde samieī, Tehran, Research Institute of Cultural Heritage & Tourism (In Persian).
Kroll, S., (2012), “Sargon II’s 8th Campaign: A New View on Old Constructs”, In the Eighth Campaign of Sargon II: Historical, Geographical, Literary, and Ideological Aspects, ed. O. W. Muscarella and S. Elliyoun. Pp. 11–17. Philadelphia: The Hasanlu Translation Project, 2006.
Leichty, E., (2011), The royal inscriptions of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria (680–669 BC), Winona Lake, Indiana EISENBRAUNS.
Lightfoot, D. R., (2000), "The Origin and Diffusion of Qanats in Arabia: New Evidence from the Northern and Southern Peninsula", The Geographical Journal, Vol. 166, No. 3, pp. 215-226.
Luckenbill, D. (1926), Ancient records of Assyria and Babylonia, Historical records of Assyria: from the earliest to Sargon, vol. 1, The University of Chicago press.
Luckenbill, D. (1927), Ancient records of Assyria and Babylonia, Historical records of Assyria: from the earliest to Sargon, vol. 2, The University of Chicago press.
Magee, P., (2005), “The chronology and environmental background of Iron age settlement in southeastern Iran and the question of the origin of the qanat irrigation system.”, Iran Antiqua 60, pp.217–231.
Majidzadeh, Y., (2010), Excavations at Ancient Site of Ozbeki, Vol. 1, Art and Architecture, Tehrān, Publications of the Directorate of Cultural Heritage Organization of Tehran Province (In Persian).
Malek Shahmirzadi, Ş., (1977)," Preliminary report of first and second excavation of Sagzabad mound, 1970-1971", Marlik2, Tehran: Tehran university press, pp 81-98 (In Persian)
Malek Shahmirzādī, Ş., (1994), “Conveying of Thoughts: Egyptian scarab in Qazvin Plain, Iran”, Iranian Journal of Archaeology and History, Vol.7, No. 1 and 2, pp 66-74 (In Persian).
Malek Shahmirzadi, Ş., (2004), Prehistoric Iran, Iran from the earliest times to the dawn of urbanism, Tehran, Organization of cultural heritage, tourism and handicrafts (In Persian).
Manuel, M., Coningham, R., Gillmore, G., Fazeli, H., (2014), “Societal Change and Sustainability within the Central Plateau of Iran”, Sustainable Development, An Appraisal from the Gulf Region, Edited by Paul Sillitoe, Berghahn Books, pp. 38-61.
Manuel, M., Lightfoot, D., Fattahi, M., (2018), “The sustainability of ancient water control techniques in Iran: an overview”, Water History, Vol.10. pp. 13-30.
Mashkour, M., (2003), “Equids in the Northern Part of the Iranian Central Plateau from the Neolithie to Iron Age: New Zoogeographie Evidence”, Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, chapter 10, pp. 129-138.
Mashkour, M., Fontugne, M. and Hatte, C. (1999), ‘Investigations on the evolution of subsistence economy in the Qazvin Plain (Iran) from the Neolithic to the Iron Age’. Antiquity 73/279, Pp 65–76.
Mashkour, M., Fontugne, M., Christine., H.,(2002), “Investigations on the evolution of subsistence economy in the Qazvin Plain (Iran) from the Neolithic to the Iron Age”, Bāstānpažūhi, vol9, pp13-21 (In Persian).
Mashkour, M., Mohaseb Karimlu, F., A., (2010), “Hunting and husbandry in the Ozbaki archaeological Zone (Savojbolagh plain) from the 6th millennium until the Iron Age: Archaeozoological study of Jeiran Tepe, Maral Tepe, Doshan Tepe and Tepe Ozbaki”, in: The archaeological excavation of Ozbaki, Vol. 1, Art and architecture, Tehrān, Publications of the Directorate of Cultural Heritage Organization of Tehran Province, pp285−300 (In Persian).
Matthews, R., Fazeli Nashli, H., (2022), the Archaeology of Iran from the Paleolithic to the Achaemenid Empire, London: Routledge.
Miller, N.F. (2003), “Archaeobotany in Iran, Past and Future” In N. F. Miller & K. Abdi (eds.) Yeki bud, yeki nabud, Essays on the Archaeology of I ran in Honor of William M. Sumner. Monograph, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology 48: 8–15. Los Angeles: University of California.
Mirjafari, H., Allāhyāri, F., Behniea, A. A. and Cheraghi, Z. (2009), Investigating the theory of the origin of aqueducts in Iran, History of Islam and Iran, 19(2), 79-102. (In Persian).doi: 10.22051/hii.2014.736
Mollabeyrami, M., Asgari, m., Zehtabvar., O., Taheri, S., “Classification, Study and Analysis of Animal Bones in Shirtel Area in Qazvin Plain from Bronze Age to Mid-Iron Age”, Journal of Research on Archaeometry, Vol.8, No.1, pp 1-20 (In Persian).
Mollabeyrami, M., Dehpahlavan, M., Zehtabvar, O. (2022), " Categorization, Taxonomy and Analysis of Faunal Remains of Qari Tape of Sagzabad", Journal of Archaeological Studies, No. 2, Vol. 14, Serial No. 30.
Moqimi, N., (2018), Re-identifying the Socioeconomic Organizations of Human Societies in Tākestān Region during the Fifth and Fourth Millennia B.C., PhD Thesis, University of Tehran, Unpublished (in Persian).
Mostūfī, H., (1983), Nozhat – ul- Qolūb, Edited by Guy le Strange, Tehran, Donyā-ye Ketāb (In Persian).
Negahban, Ezatollah (1977)," Excavation of Qazvin plain, 1971-1972", Marlik2, Tehran: Tehran university press, pp 33-52 (In Persian).
Nouri, R, (2011) Investigating the water supply system of Qazvin city during the Qajar period, Master's thesis, University of Tehran, Unpublished (In Persian).
Oppenheim, A. L., (1965), “On Royal Gardens in Mesopotamia”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4, Erich F. Schmidt Memorial Issue. Part Two (Oct., 1965), pp. 328-333.
Pollard, A. M., Fazeli Nashli, H., Davoudi, H., Sarlak, S., Helwing, B. and Saeeidi Anaraki, F. (2013), "A new radiocarbon chro-nology for the north central plateau of Iran from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age". Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 45, pp. 27–50.
Polybius, (1889), The Histories of Polybius, Vol II, Translated from the Text of F. Hultsch, Translator: Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, London and New York: Macmillan.
Polybius, (2010), The Complete Histories of Polybius, Translator: Paton, W. R., Digireads.com Publishing.
Postgate, J. N., (1987), Notes on fruit in the cuneiform sources. Bul. Sumerian Agr. III, Cambridge, pp.115-144.
Qazvīnī, Z., (1994), Āṯār al-belād Va Aḵbār ul-Ībād, Translated in Persian by Mirza Jahangire Qajar, Tehrān, Amīr Kabīr Publishers (In Persian).
Qobadiyani Marūzī, A, (1956), Safarnāme Nāserḵosro, Edited by Mohammad Dabīre Sīyāqī, Tehrān, Sepehr (In Persian).
Radner, K., (2003), “An Assyrian view on the Medes”, Continuity of empire (?): Assyria, Media, Persia, History of the Ancient Near East Monographs 5, Padova 2003, pp. 37-64.
Reade, E. J., (1979)," Hasanlu, Gilzanu, and Related Considerations", Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 8 and 12, pp. 175-182.
Reade, E. J., (1995),"Iran in the Neo-Assyrian Period", Neo-Assyrian geography, Roma: Università di Roma, Dipartimento di scienze storiche, archeologiche e antropologiche dell'Antichità, pp. 31-44.
Rūmlū, ḩ., (1978), Aḩsan عl-Tawārīḵ, Edited by Abdolḩossein Navāei, Tehran, Babak Publications (In Persian).
Saeedian, S., Firoozmandi, B., (2017), “From Mount Silhazu to Mount Bikni: Historical Geography of Media in the Neo-Assyrian Period”, Journal of Archaeological Studies, Volume 8, Issue 2, pp 71-89 (In Persian).
Salesse, E., (2001), Du nouveau à propos des galeries de captage émergentes. Quelques réflexions sur les actes duséminaire du Collège de France de mars 2000. Pierre Briant (éd.), Irrigation et drainage dans l’Antiquité. Qanâts et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Egypte et en Grèce (Séminaire du Collège de France, mars 2000). Topoi, 11, pp. 711–736.
Scheiblecker, M., Fassbinder, J. W. E., Becker, F., Asandulesei, A., Gruber, M., Kaniuth, K., (2017), “A king and his paradise? A major Achaemenid garden palace in the Southern Caucasus”, 12th International Conference of Archaeological Prospection, Edited by Benjamin Jennings, Christopher Gaffney, Thomas Sparrow and Sue Gaffney, University of Bradford
Schmidt, A., Fazeli, H., (2007), “Tepe Ghabristan: A Chalcolithic Tell Buried in Alluvium”, Archaeological Prospection, Volume14, Issue1, pp. 38-46.
Semsar Yazdi, A. A., Labbaf Khaneiki, M., (2017), Qanat knowledge: construction and maintenance, Springer.
Sevin, V., (2000), “Urartian Gardens”, Belleten, Volume 64 - Issue 240, pp. 395-406.
Sharifi, A., Djamali, M., Peterson, L.C., Swart, P. K., Guadalupe Pulido Ávila, M., Esfahaninejad, M., de Beaulieu, J. L., Lahijani, H. A. K., Pourmand, A., (2023), “The rise and demise of Iran’s Urmia Lake during the Holocene and the Anthropocene: “what’s past is prologue”, Regional Environmental Change 23, 121.
Sharifi, A., Pourmand, A., Canuel, E., Ferer-Tyler, E., Peterson, L.C., Aichner, B., Feakins, S. J., Daryaee, T., Djamali, M., Naderi Beni, B., Lahijani, H. A. K., Swart, P. K., (2015), “Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: The hand that rocked the Cradle of Civilization?”, Quaternary Science Reviews 123, pp.215-230.
Shirazi, Z., Tengberg, M., (2012), “Vegetation and Wood Exploitation at Tape Sialk from the Neolithic to the Iron Age”, In: Shahmirzadi, S.M. (Ed.), The Villagers of Sialk. Research Center of Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization, Tehran, pp. 17–26.
Shirazi, Z., (2019), ‘Vegetal resources of southern Sistan during the third millennium BC, based on the archaeobotanical evidence at Shahr-i Sokhta’, in S.M.S. Sajjadi and E. Ascalone (eds) A Collection of Papers on Shahr-i Sokhta. Tehran: Pishinpajouh, pp 285–332 (In Persian).
Shirazi, Z., Tengberg, M., Maškūr, M., Mollāh Șālleḩi, ḩ., (2006), “Preliminary report of Archaeobotanical studies in Tepe Zāqeh: an attempt to reconstruct the vegetation of the Qazvin plain in the 6th millennium BC”, Archaeology, Issue 4, pp. 127-134 (In Persian).
Shirvani, Z., (without date), Bostān-O- Sīyaḩa, Vol.1, Tehran, Sanāīe Library (In Persian).
Sohbati, R., Fattaḩi, Fazeli Nashli, H., Quigley, M., Schmidt, A., Azīzī, ḡ., Maqsūdī, M., (2011), “Cheskin blind thrust and its probable effect on the missing millennium (Qazvin plain)”, The Journal of Earth and Space Physics, Volume 37, Issue 2, pp 17-31 (In Persian).
Strabo, (2003), Strabons Geographik, Translated in Persian by Homayoun Sanatizadeh, Tehran, Mahmoud Afshar Foundation (In Persian).
Tadmor, H., Yamada. Sh. (2011), The Royal Inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III (744–727BC), and Shalmaneser V (726–722BC), Kings of Assyria, Eisenbrauns.
Taher Khani, M., (2020), “Analysis of the effects of water shortage on grape production in the rural areas of Takestan”, Volume 9, Issue 31, pp 241-257 (Iin Persian).
Talaei, Ḩ., (2010), "Iron age of Iran", Tehran: Samt (In Persian).
Tehranfar, S., Survey of the Historical sites of Boin Zahra, Master's thesis, University of Tehran, Unpublished (In Persian).
Tengberg, M., Vahdati, A. A., Ferankfort, A. P., Shirāzi, Z., (2011), “Archaeobotanical Studies at Tepe Damghani, Sabzevar”, Iranian Journal of Archaeology and HIstory (IJAH), 2011, vol. 25/1, pp. 10-16 (In Persian).
Traina, G., (2023), “The Satrapies of the Persian Empire: Media and Armenia”, In The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume V: The Age of Persia, Edited by Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and D. T. Potts, Oxford University Press, pp.556-591.
Varjāvand, P., (1970), The land of Qazvin, Tehran, Anjomane Āṯār-e mellī (In Persian)
Wick, L., Lemcke, G., Sturm, M., (2003), “Evidence of Lateglacial and Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia: high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geochemical records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey”, The Holocene 13, pp. 665–675.
Wilkinson, T. J., Boucharlat, R., Ertsen, M. W., Gillmore, G., Kennet, D, Magee, P., Rezakhani, Kh., Schacht, T. D., (2012), “From human niche construction to imperial power: long-term trends in ancient Iranian water systems”, Water Hist 4, pp.155–176.
Wiseman, D. J., (1983), “Mesopotamian Gardens” , Anatolian Studies , Vol. 33, Special Number in Honour of the Seventy- Fifth Birthday of Dr. Richard Barnett (1983), pp. 137-144.
Yaʻqūbī, A., (1977), Al-boldān, Translated in Persian by Moḩammad Ebrahim Ayati, Tehran, B.T.N.K. (In Persian).
Zimansky, P., (1985), Ecology and Empire: The Structure of the Urartian State, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 41, Chicago: Oriental Institute.
Zohary, D., Hopf, M., Weiss, E.,(2012), Domestication of Plants in the Old World The origin and spread of domesticated plants in south-west Asia, Europe, and the Mediterran'ean Basin, Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press Inc., New York
)